J. Barium. Before a treatment device is installed, the water should be tested to determine the general water chemistry and verify the presence and concentration of barium. Where applicable, the appropriate authorities should be consulted to ensure that the disposal of liquid and solid waste residuals from the treatment of drinking water meet applicable regulations. Water: All of the group 2 elements form hydroxides when reacted with water. Although the authors tested the precipitation of BaSO4 at a pH of 11, such a high pH is likely not necessary, based on several kinetic studies of BaSO4 (Aoun et al., 1996; van Leeuwen et al., 1996; Kugler et al., 2015). U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC. NHMRC (2011). Strontium forms this if it is heated in oxygen under high pressures, but barium forms barium peroxide just on normal heating in oxygen. Barium also reacts very fast with acids to make a barium salt and hydrogen. and Nava-Ocampo, A.A. (2010). Female Sprague-Dawley rats gavaged for 10 days with 100, 145, 209 and 300 Ba/kg bw per day in water had a decreased kidney/brain weight ratio in all dose groups except the highest; however, the authors concluded that these results were likely not barium-related, due to the absence of effects in the highest dose group (Borzelleca et al., 1988). To determine dissolved barium concentrations, samples should be filtered (0.45 µm pore diameter) at the time of collection using preconditioned plastic filtering devices under either vacuum or pressure. Toxicol., 38(6): 380–382. Drinking water treatability database. In a bench-scale two-stage coagulation study, up to 80% of barium was removed, reducing approximately 8.0 mg/L barium in the feed water to less than 1.6 mg/L. Office of Water, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. From a total of 1,490 observation wells, individual wells and drinking water facilities, the mean barium level observed was 153 µg/L and the maximum concentration was 10,000 µg/L. Ohgami, N., Mitsumatsu, Y., Ahsan, N., Akhand, A.A., Li, X., Iida, M., Yajima, I., Naito, M., Wakai, K., Ohnuma, Other agencies have concluded that there is no evidence that barium is carcinogenic via the oral route (IPCS, 2001; WHO, 2016). Removal efficiency of water purifier and adsorbent for iodine, cesium, strontium, barium and zirconium in drinking water. Mortality in mice was attributed to treatment-related renal toxicity, whereas in rats, renal lesions were less severe and were not attributed mortality in the high dose group. J. Environ. association representing the residential, commercial and industrial water U.S. EPA. [as cited in CCME, 2013], ECCC (2016). The virgin resin concentration was increased from 0.15 mEq Ba2+/mL to a constant value of 0.38 mEq Ba2+/mL after several regeneration cycles with a regenerant dose of 1.8 mEq NaCl/mL resin. The pH and alkalinity of the water treated with SAC (Na+) remained approximately unchanged throughout the production run. CRC (2017). New Zealand Ministry of Health (2013). Sci., 373(2037). Although barium, and its water-soluble compounds are often highly toxic, the extremely low solubility of barium sulfate protects the patient from absorbing harmful amounts of the metal. The silica concentration of 155 mg/L was reduced by 96% and 98% after 1 and 3 h, respectively. The Geological Survey of Canada reported a mean concentration in Canadian soil of 140 mg/kg (SD = 120; n = 7,397) (CCME, 2013). For these reasons, an HBV of 2.0 mg/L was derived to be protective of the general population, based on kidney effects from a study in mice. Arch. Attention must be given to the water quality of a new source prior to making any changes to an existing supply. Another study reported an LD50 of 132 mg Ba/kg bw and 220 mg Ba/kg bw for adults and weanling Charles River rats (strain not specified), respectively, gavaged with barium chloride in water (Tardiff et al., 1980). Standard 58: Reverse osmosis drinking water treatment systems. Removal of barium and radium from groundwater. No significant alterations in gestation length, pup survival, or occurrence of external abnormalities were observed. Sci., 301(1–2): 131–141. The WAC (H+) resins have weak-acid functional groups and only exchange ions in the neutral to alkaline pH range. Available at: http://maps-cartes.ec.gc.ca/rnspa-naps/data.aspx?lang=en. The barium solution helps to improve the quality of the X-ray images by highlighting certain areas of tissue. Lymphoid depletion was observed in the spleen, thymus and lymph nodes of mice and rats exposed to 2,500 ppm barium chloride dihydrate for 103–105 weeks (NTP, 1994). Since the stability of metals accumulated in distribution system piping scales is unpredictable, it is difficult to establish a monitoring program for barium in distribution systems. J. Nutr, 105(4): 452–458. A virgin WAC (H+) resin (capacity of 11.5 mEq/g resin) showed an approximately identical selectivity for barium and calcium ions, as both contaminants break through at approximately 800 BVs, while magnesium ions break through earlier, at 650 BVs. Common barium compounds include barium sulphate (barite), barium carbonate (witherite), barium chloride, barium hydroxide, barium oxide, and barium sulphide. Sci. Kugler, R.T., Doyle, S. and Kind, M. (2015). (1987). Accurate quantification of dissolved, particulate (suspended) and total barium in samples is dependent on proper sample preservation and preparation steps. No changes in blood pressure were observed throughout the 13-week period in any of the dose groups. Occurrence and distribution of iron, manganese, and selected trace elements in ground water in the glacial aquifer system of the Northern United States. (1988). Personal communication from G. Somers. Trace metals. The acute cardiovascular and neuromuscular toxicity of barium reported in case studies has been attributed to its hypokalemia effect (Roza and Berman, 1971; Koch et al., 2003). Office of Water, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC. Environ. Ministry of Health, Wellington. U.S. EPA (2004). Office of Water (MS-4606M), U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC. Barium in the air is associated with particulate matter and mainly occurs in insoluble forms (e.g., sulphate) (Kravchenko et al., 2014). In raw groundwater, the mean level was 52 µg/L, the median was 53 µg/L and the maximum was 301 µg/L. Barium chloride is used in the production of sodium hydroxide, aluminum alloys, pigments and textiles, and in the treatment of boiler water (Dibello et al., 2003). Cell. In the 15-month interim evaluation, urea nitrogen levels were elevated in mice of all dosage groups (although the finding was not statistically significant, according to the authors) indicating that some animals were beginning to experience changes in kidney function consistent with the observed pathology, even at the lower doses. Am. (2009). ***Maximum Acceptable Concentration (MAC) – Health Canada regulated highest level allowed in drinking water. In addition, since barium has chemical properties similar to calcium, they can interact through biochemical pathways involving calcium binding proteins and compete for binding sites (IPCS, 1990). Schroeder, H.A. Food and drinking water represent the main sources of exposure to barium for the general population; however, the available data indicate that contributions from these sources can be highly variable. In the presence of a sulphate (SO42–) concentration of ≥2 mg/L and a pH level below 9.3, insoluble barite (BaSO4) may precipitate and become the dominant barium species. Science and Technical Considerations, 4.0 Identity, use and sources in the environment, 5.7 Multi-route exposure through drinking water, 7.0 Treatment technology and distribution system considerations, 7.2.4.1 SAC resins in sodium and hydrogen forms, 7.2.5.1 Improving recovery of reverse osmosis, 8.5 Physiologically based pharmacokinetic (PBPK) models, 9.1.2 Subchronic and chronic toxicity and carcinogenicity, 9.1.3 Developmental and reproductive toxicity, 9.2.3 Long-term exposure and carcinogenicity, 9.2.5 Reproductive and developmental toxicity, Axially viewed induct- ively coupled atomic emission spectrometry, Subject to spectral, physical, chemical and memory interferences. Barium is not considered to be an essential element (Venugopal and Luckey, 1978; Ferrante et al., 2014; Chellan and Sadler, 2015). Chem. J. Med. and Guerin, M.D. If the brine also contains Ra2+, it will coprecipitate on the BaSO4 and will also be removed (Myers et al., 1985). The mean concentration observed was 57 µg/L in treated water (n = 30) and 26 µg/L in surface water (n = 5). Pregnancy outcome after 1st-trimester inadvertent exposure to barium sulphate as a contrast media for upper gastrointestinal tract radiography. and Meirhenry, E.F. (1992). Toxicological review of barium and compounds (CAS No. Rahardianto, A., Gao, J., Gabelich, C.J., Williams, M.D. Barium is a white liquid used to coat the organs of the digestive system during an X-ray. (2001). Barium is a divalent cation and alkaline earth metal that can be found in naturally occurring mineral deposits. Other organizations have set guidelines or regulations pertaining to the concentration of barium in drinking water. J. Vol. Toxicol., 260(4): 349–367. Environ. Manitoba surface waters are monitored through a series of monitoring programs, such as the Long‐term Water Quality Monitoring Program, the Lake Winnipeg Monitoring Program and the Coordinated Aquatic Monitoring Program. Environ. (eds.). EPA/540/R/99/005 OSWER 9285.7-02EP PB99-963312. In Newfoundland and Labrador, barium levels in 483 public drinking water systems were reported from 2012 through 2016 using a DL of 1 µg/L (Newfoundland and Labrador Department of Environment and Conservation, 2017). In northern Manitoba lakes and rivers, an average concentration of less than 10 µg/L (range of 4.6 to 8.7 µg/L; n = 5) has been reported (CCME, 2013). However, the SAC (H+) resin is rarely used in water softening because it produces acidic and corrosive water (Clifford, 1999) requiring acid-resistant materials, CO2 stripping and pH adjustment of the product water (Snoeyink et al., 1984, 1987a, 1987b; Myers et al., 1985; Snyder et al., 1986). (1981). Sato, I., Kudo, H. and Tsuda, S. (2011). In the 13-week studies, F344/N rats and B6C3F1 mice (43 days old; 10/sex/dose) were administered barium (as barium chloride in drinking water ad libitum) at concentrations of 0, 125, 500, 1,000, 2,000 and 4,000 mg/L (0, 10, 30, 65, 110 or 200 mg Ba/kg bw per day for male rats; and 0, 10, 35, 65, 115 or 180 mg Ba/kg bw per day for female rats; 0, 15, 55, 100, 205 or 450 mg Ba/kg bw per day for male mice; and 0, 15, 60, 110, 200 or 495 mg Ba/kg bw per day for female mice, as determined by the study authors) (NTP, 1994). It is toxic by ingestion. Total Environ., 267(1–3): 125–140. The existing guideline on barium, last updated in 1990, established a maximum acceptable concentration (MAC) of 1.0 mg/L (1,000 µg/L) based on the absence of adverse effects on blood pressure in humans. Electrodialysis is typically applied for desalination of seawater and brackish water with a low turbidity (Sorg and Logsdon, 1980; Krause and Stover, 1982). Preliminary exposure data for five metals from 2014-2017 CMP(3) research. Am. For more significant, long-term exceedances that cannot be addressed through treatment, it is suggested that alternative sources of drinking water be considered. Barium sulfide poisoning. Pergamon Press, Amsterdam. Int. Barium. If water softeners (cation exchange systems using 100% sulphonated polystyrene divinyl benzene resin), certified to NSF/ANSI Standard 44 and reduced hardness concentration to below 1.0 gpg (17.1 mg/L) from an influent hardness of 20 gpg (342 mg/L) will be able effectively to reduce barium in drinking water. Shelf Res., 25(11): 1395–1414. J., 52:81–87. In laboratory tests, a virgin SAC (Ca2+) resin was capable of reducing barium concentration of up to 23.0 mg/L to below 1.0 mg/L in the treated water for a run length of approximately 1,200 BVs, at a loading rate of 5.4 gpm/ft2 (13.2 m/h) and an empty bed contact time of 2.5 min (Myers et al., 1985). Skin products, cosmetics and tattoo inks can also contain barium (CCME, 2013; New Zealand Ministry of Health, 2013). Ii is very light and its density is half that of iron. The available information on barium has been assessed with the intent of establishing a drinking water guideline and guideline technical document. Standard methods for the examination of water and wastewater, 21st edition. Health Canada (2017). The samples were stirred for 14 h in contact with 0.15 g of the media. and Allison, D.B. Their findings suggest that further research should be done on softening water using Na2CO3 when requiring the removal of barium alone, rather than total hardness. Br. High concentrations of barium in drinking water increase the risk of cardiovascular disease and hypertension. Table 1 provides the physicochemical properties of common barium compounds. The carcinogenicity of barium has not been evaluated in humans. (2011) compared separation factors of a number of cations on SAC resins and produced an ion selectivity sequence for ten divalent cations. The regenerated resin was capable of reducing an influent barium concentration of 12.0 mg/L to 1.0 mg/L for run lengths of approximately 1,300 BVs during the third loaded (exhaustion) run. Canadian minerals yearbook. Utilities that treat their water for barium removal need to conduct frequent monitoring of the treated water in order to make necessary process adjustments and to ensure that treatment processes are effectively removing barium and other co-contaminants below their respective MACs. Groschen, G.E., Arnold, T.L., Morrow, W.S. The removal was pH dependent and increased from 65% at pH 8.7 to a peak of 98% at pH 10.5 and then declined to 55% at pHs greater than 11.6. Acta, 39(4): 505–519. Sources of dietary exposure include food commodities such as grain-based products, fruits, vegetables, nuts, and herbs and spices (Health Canada, 2012b). Since barium and calcium are the cations most preferred by these ion exchange resins, chromatographic peaking may be observed for ions such as sodium and magnesium in the product water. It is used mostly by the oil and gas Hum. However, adverse effects on the kidneys have shown the strongest association with chronic oral exposure to barium. Public Health, 7: 3332– 3347. Health Canada (2016). One of the major operational considerations when using IX treatment, especially with SAC (H+) resins, includes chromatographic peaking, whereby the less preferred ions (i.e., Na+ and Mg2+) are displaced by more preferred ions (Ba2+ and Ca2+), causing the effluent of Na+ and Mg+ concentrations to be greater than the influent concentration (Snoeyink et al., 1987a; Clifford, 1999). In New Brunswick, barium in drinking water was measured in 231 Crown (groundwater wells only) and 476 municipal water supply systems (ground and surface water) between 2007 and 2017 using a DL of 10 µg/L (New Brunswick Department of Health, 2017). (1984). Each exhaustion run had been terminated at a hardness breakthrough of 40.0 mg as CaCO3/L, and a regenerant dose of 1.8 mEq NaCl/mL resin [6.5 lb NaCl/ft3 resin (3 kg NaCl/m3 resin)], was used in the regeneration cycle. Mod. pp. The U.S. EPA also approved several methods (SM 3111D, SM 3113B, and SM 3120B) developed by a voluntary consensus standard organization (U.S. EPA, 2016). J. Forensic Med. The Canadian Total Diet Study (CTDS) is a Health Canada initiative that measures the concentrations of different chemicals in foods and uses these data to estimate dietary exposures for different age–sex groups of the Canadian population (Health Canada, 2012b). Limits for intakes of radionuclides by workers. As pH decreases, the sulphur species present in water will be reduced to lower oxidation states, increasing the water solubility of barium compounds, with barium sulphate (BaSO4) and carbonate (BaCO3) being more dependent on pH than barium chloride (BaCl2) (ATSDR, 2007; Kravchenko et al., 2014). diameter pipe). Legget (1992) reported several unpublished studies with oral absorption rates ranging from 1% to 50%. American Public Health Association, American Water Works Association and Water Environment Federation, Washington, DC. In mice, final mean body weights for males and females of the highest dose group were significantly lower than controls, with males consuming 18% less water than controls. Barium is a chemical element with the symbol Ba and atomic number 56. Treated water (n = 223) had a mean of 78.3 µg/L, a median of 64 µg/L and a maximum of 1,440 µg/L. An increase in metallothionein content was also observed (Elwej et al., 2016a, 2016b). Dissolved barium is precipitated as barium carbonate, a mechanism that occurs for calcium removal during treatment of hard water (Sorg and Logsdon, 1980). American Water Works Association, Denver, Colorado. (2001). Crystalline Barium-titanate is a ceramic compound which is used in capacitors and transducers. Barium chloride (10 to 10,000 µg/plate) caused no significant increase in gene mutation frequency in Salmonella typhimurium (TA97, TA98, TA100, TA1535, and TA1537) with and without Aroclor 1254-induced rat or hamster liver S9 fractions (Rossman et al., 1991; NTP, 1994). The tests were performed using tap water from a New Jersey water distribution system. Taylor, S.R. Arch. (1998). J. Membr. (1985, 1989) exposed female Long-Evans weanling rats (13 per dose group) to barium chloride in drinking water at concentrations of 0, 1, 10 or 100 ppm for 1–16 months. MCLGs allow for a margin of safety and are non-enforceable public health goals. J. Membr. Cosmochim. Blending of finished water with raw water may stabilize finished water and decrease the cost of treatment by reducing the volume of water treated, which results in less frequent regeneration and therefore a savings in chemical and brine disposal costs (Clifford, 1999). Benchmark dose (BMD) modelling was performed using the nephropathy incidence in mice as reported in the 2-year NTP (1994) study at a 10% and 5% increased incidence over background rates (the benchmark response; BMR). Barium absorption from the diet in humans was reported to vary widely, generally ranging from 1% to 60% (LeRoy et al., 1966; Schroeder et al., 1972; Legget, 1992; Kravchenko et al., 2014). In Quebec, 11,889 samples of treated drinking water were taken from 3,178 distribution systems between 2013 and 2016 (Ministère du Développement durable, de l’Environnement et de la Lutte contre les changements climatiques, 2017). Thomas, M., Bowie, D. and Walker, R. (1998). 14(5): 974–991. The most common biological matrix used as an indicator of barium exposure in biomonitoring studies is urine. The regeneration of WAC (H+) resin produced less spent regenerant per unit volume of treated water than the regeneration of the SAC column (Snyder et al., 1986; Clifford, 1999; Elder and Budd, 2011). However, daily intakes from these products were not estimated, as there are no available data on the proportion of the general population using these items, and absorption through the skin is considered negligible, based on the physicochemical properties of the element. Silva, T.A., Freitas, K.A. and Rabah, T. (2011). Isr. J. The Canadian Council of Ministers of the Environment (CCME) estimated the average barium concentrations in human breast milk to be 3.61 µg/L, based on an average of barium concentrations from six international studies (Canadian, Austrian, Italian, and Emirati) (CCME, 2013). Canadian Environmental Protection Act. Metal and metalloid multi-elementary ICP-MS validation in whole blood, plasma, urine and hair. Fourth national report on human exposure to environmental chemicals. As a potassium channel antagonist, barium increases intracellular potassium and decreases its extracellular levels by blocking the efflux of cellular potassium and increasing the sodium- potassium-ATPase pump activity (Payen et al., 2011). The U.S. EPA (2005) concluded that barium is considered not likely to be carcinogenic to humans via oral intake. Recovery optimization of RO concentrate from desert wells. and Pfeffer, J.L. Toxicol., 6(2): 209–217. (2007) demonstrated that two-stage desalination RO, supplemented with precipitative softening treatment of primary RO concentrate, was an effective approach to remove mineral salt scaling including barium sulphate, as well as improving process recovery to 95–98%. The halogens are Group 17 (VIIA) of the periodic table and include fluorine, chlorine, bromine, iodine, and astatine. (2016) tested an adsorptive zeolite 4A medium for barium removal in batch experiments using feed water with barium concentrations of from 0.3 mmol (41.1 mg/L) to 25 mmol (3,432 mg/L) at pH levels of 8.2–11.0. CCME (2013). Water Res., 50: 396–407. Sci., 3(4): 565–568. Trace metals in man: strontium and barium. Barium was administered via the drinking water at successive barium concentrations of 0 ppm for the first 2 weeks, 5 ppm for the next 4 weeks and 10 ppm (as barium chloride) for the final 4 weeks. Schroeder, H.A., Tipton, I.H. Dibello, P. M., Manganaro, J. L., Aguinaldo, E. R., Mahmood, T. and Lindahl, C. B. Cycles, 24(4): n/a-n/a. The exhausted SAC (Ca2+) resin was effectively regenerated (92–100% removal of barium from the column) with a regenerant dose of 6 eq 0.85 CaCl2/L. An implementation of conventional lime-softening-based ICCS technology (a primary RO concentrate followed by a secondary RO system) was capable of improving the overall system recovery from 85% to 92.5–95.5% (He et al., 2011). Mortality was 10–30% for rats and 60–70% for mice in the highest dose groups. (2018). The pathophysiology of barium: hypokalemic and cardiovascular effects. Barium compounds. The most sensitive adverse effect of barium appears to be renal toxicity. 10326-27-9) in: F344/N rats and B6C3F1 mice (Drinking Water Studies). Acute barium intoxication and hemodiafiltration. Lancet, 284(7355): 342–343. (2006). When interconnecting with another water system, the recipient system must consider a number of factors, including whether there is a nearby water supply that meets the proposed MAC for barium, whether this other system is willing to interconnect or consolidate and whether the interconnecting system can handle the increased demand resulting from additional customers. PEI Department of Communities, Land and Environment (2017). However, the redox potential may impact the species of sulphur. Barium accumulation is strongly influenced by the co-occurrence of manganese deposits, phosphate precipitates and/or phosphate surface groups and to lesser extent by the concentration of barium in the water (McComish and Ong, 1988; Sugiyama et al., 1992; Charette and Sholkovitz, 2006; Schock et al., 2008; Friedman et al., 2010; Peng et al., 2012). (2015). Toxicol., 52(6): 584–593. Long-Evans rats exposed to 5 mg Ba/L (52/sex; as barium acetate) via drinking water had increased proteinuria in males only after lifetime exposure, whereas females showed no significant difference from controls; no kidney lesions in treated rats were noted by the authors (Schroeder and Mitchener, 1975a). The average dietary exposures to barium in Canada have been assessed through the CTDS (Health Canada, 2012a). A NOAEL of 115 mg/kg bw per day for rats and 200 mg/kg bw per day for mice can be identified from this study. However, in another case medical treatment following exposure to up to 133 g of barium carbonate prevented a lethal response (Downs et al., 1995). The absorption of calcium, strontium, barium and radium from the gastrointestinal tract of the rat. and Stanton, J.L. ED/EDR is less commonly reported; however, it is also effective for barium removal from drinking water. Araissi et al. (1989). Biol. (ed.). Fundamental insights into barium sulfate precipitation by time-resolved Studies by Taylor et al. The sequence describes the selectivity order in which cations are preferred by SAC resins and suggests that during water softening Ba2+ cations are preferentially removed compared with Ca2+ and Mg2+ forms. The virgin WAC (H+) resin showed a lower capacity for barium but greater capacities for hardness and alkalinity than the virgin SAC (Hm+) resin under similar operating conditions. Effective membrane technologies for barium removal in drinking water include RO, NF, as well as ED/EDR (U.S. EPA, 1998; Odell, 2010). Barium deposition in the distribution system occurs primarily due to the surface adsorption and/or co-precipitation reactions involving soluble barium species (Ba2+), which are enhanced at elevated pH (Friedman et al., 2010). WQA. Acute renal failure associated with barium chloride poisoning. Lancet, 284(7355): 343–344. NSF/ANSI (2016a). Human health risk assessment for priority substances. Nutr., 105(4): 421–427. However, an influent barium concentration of 0.9 mg/L was reduced by only 30% and 67% after 1 and 3 h, respectively. The exhausted SAC (Ca2+) resin required less frequency of regeneration than the calcium sulphate SAC (Na+) resin (Atassi et al., 2007). In animals the results are equivocal; the positive findings are potentially influenced by an experimental diet low in calcium, which has been identified as a possible risk factor for hypertension in humans. World Health Organization, International Program on Chemical Safety. Global Biogeochem. Health, 3(1): 79–95. Payen, C., Dellinger, A., Pulce, C., Cirimele, V., Carbonnel, V., Kintz, P. and Descotes, J. Consequently, the proposed MAC of 2.0 mg/L has been established to be protective of the general population, based on studies of kidney effects in mice. EPA 815-B- 09-003. Barium concentrations and speciation in mineral natural waters of central Romania. The essential role of a poison center in handling an outbreak of barium carbonate poisoning. WHO (2001). Lime softening followed by filtration and pH adjustment is an effective pretreatment to improve the performance of RO for enhanced removal of mineral salt scaling from water sources. Water Works Assoc., 74(9): 478–485. The hardness reductions achieved were, respectively, from 214 mg/L to 109 mg/L, from 216 mg/L to 86 mg/L and from 209 mg/L to 42 mg/L. Am. The purpose of this consultation is to solicit comments on the proposed guideline, on the approach used for its development and on the potential economic costs of implementing it, as well as to determine the availability of additional exposure data. Barium also reacts with water and with most acids. Available at: www.canada.ca/en/health-canada/services/food-nutrition/food-nutrition-surveillance/canadian-total-diet-study.html, Health Canada (2012b). For conventional SAC (Na+) softening, chromatographic peaking is not a major operational consideration if the treatment run is terminated at hardness breakthrough. Cuddihy, R.G. The kidneys are considered to be the major target for barium toxicity. However, the small number of subjects, the duration of exposure, and the lack of absorption data limit an interpretation of the results of this study. Natl. Barium chromate and phosphate are insoluble in water but are soluble in acids, whereas barium sulphate is insoluble in water and is only slightly soluble in acids. Kojola, W.H., Brenniman, G.R. 2012 Edition of the drinking water standards and health advisories. (2014). Both regenerant concentration and regenerant dose affected the barium concentration in the treated water in the following exhaustion runs. The maximum blood concentration was higher with barium sulphate than with barium chloride or barium carbonate. Friedman, M.J., Hill, A.S., Reiber, S.H., Valentine, R.L., Larsen, G., Young, A., Korshin, G.V. Ligand extraction of rare earth elements from aquifer sediments: implications for rare earth element complexation with organic matter in natural waters. Toxicol. Barium is widely distributed across the earth's crust (0.04%) with an average concentration of 10–425 mg/kg, and ranks 16th in abundance amongst non-gaseous elements (Taylor, 1964; Schroeder et al., 1972). Barium can be absorbed via the inhalation route; however, exposure to barium vapours while showering or bathing is not expected to occur, since barium is not volatile (vapour pressure is close to null). US EPA. Thereafter, you can resume your regular diet and medication routine. Barium-induced hypertension. Moreover, the oral administration of pomegranate peel powder (5% of diet) improved all barium-induced renal and liver damage, possibly by acting as an electron donor (antioxidant). Dietz et al. Myocardial damage due to barium chloride poisoning. Int. and Frohman, L.A. (1990). The hardness, alkalinity and pH of the water were nearly unchanged throughout the treatment runs. Available at: http://maps-cartes.ec.gc.ca/rnspa-naps/data.aspx?lang=en, Environment Canada (2013) National air pollution surveillance (NAPS) monitoring results.
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